Históricamente, muchas de las ciencias individuales , como la física y la psicología , formaban parte de la filosofía. Sin embargo, se las considera disciplinas académicas separadas en el sentido moderno del término. Las tradiciones influyentes en la historia de la filosofía incluyen la filosofía occidental , árabe-persa , india y china . La filosofía occidental se originó en la Antigua Grecia y cubre una amplia área de subcampos filosóficos. Un tema central en la filosofía árabe-persa es la relación entre la razón y la revelación . La filosofía india combina el problema espiritual de cómo alcanzar la iluminación con la exploración de la naturaleza de la realidad y las formas de llegar al conocimiento. La filosofía china se centra principalmente en cuestiones prácticas relacionadas con la conducta social correcta, el gobierno y el autocultivo .
Kepler fue profesor de matemáticas en unseminariodeGraz, donde se convirtió en socio delpríncipe Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Más tarde se convirtió en asistente del astrónomoTycho BraheenPragay, finalmente, en el matemático imperial delemperador Rodolfo IIy sus dos sucesoresMatíasyFernando II. También enseñó matemáticas enLinzy fue asesor delgeneral Wallenstein. Además, realizó un trabajo fundamental en el campo dela óptica, siendo nombrado el padre de la óptica moderna, en particular por suAstronomiae pars optica. También inventó una versión mejorada deltelescopio refractor, el telescopio kepleriano, que se convirtió en la base del telescopio refractor moderno, al tiempo que mejoró el diseño del telescopio deGalileo Galilei, quien mencionó los descubrimientos de Kepler en su trabajo. (Artículo completo...)
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El problema del lenguaje religioso plantea si es posible hablar de Dios de manera significativa si se aceptan las concepciones tradicionales de Dios como incorpóreo, infinito y atemporal. Dado que estas concepciones tradicionales de Dios dificultan su descripción, el lenguaje religioso tiene el potencial de carecer de sentido. Las teorías del lenguaje religioso intentan demostrar que dicho lenguaje carece de sentido o intentan demostrar cómo el lenguaje religioso puede seguir siendo significativo.
Una postura predominante en la filosofía islámica sostiene que el lenguaje religioso es significativo y positivo, y demuestra los atributos compartidos de Dios y sus criaturas. Según esta perspectiva, la similitud semántica de atributos entre Dios y los humanos indica similitudes ontológicas entre ellos. Esto se debe a que los conceptos fácticos se refieren a realidades del mundo externo y se abstraen de ellas. ( Artículo completo... )
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Augustine of Hippo (AD 354–430) as painted by Sandro Botticelli (c. 1445–1510). Augustine is credited with developing the first form of the theodicy now named for him. The Augustinian theodicy, named for the 4th- and 5th-century theologian and philosopher Augustine of Hippo, is a type of Christiantheodicy that developed in response to the evidential problem of evil. As such, it attempts to explain the probability of an omnipotent (all-powerful) and omnibenevolent (all-loving) God amid evidence of evil in the world. A number of variations of this kind of theodicy have been proposed throughout history; their similarities were first described by the 20th-century philosopher John Hick, who classified them as "Augustinian". They typically assert that God is perfectly (ideally) good, that he created the world out of nothing, and that evil is the result of humanity's original sin. The entry of evil into the world is generally explained as consequence of original sin and its continued presence due to humans' misuse of free will and concupiscence. God's goodness and benevolence, according to the Augustinian theodicy, remain perfect and without responsibility for evil or suffering.
Augustine of Hippo was the first to develop the theodicy. He rejected the idea that evil exists in itself, instead regarding it as a corruption of goodness, caused by humanity's abuse of free will. Augustine believed in the existence of a physical Hell as a punishment for sin, but argued that those who choose to accept the salvation of Jesus Christ will go to Heaven. In the 13th century, Thomas Aquinas – influenced by Augustine – proposed a similar theodicy based on the view that God is goodness and that there can be no evil in him. He believed that the existence of goodness allows evil to exist, through the fault of humans. Augustine also influenced John Calvin, who supported Augustine's view that evil is the result of free will and argued that sin corrupts humans, requiring God's grace to give moral guidance. (Full article...)
Maximus the Confessor (Greek: Μάξιμος ὁ Ὁμολογητής, romanized: Maximos ho Homologētēs), also spelled Maximos, otherwise known as Maximus the Theologian and Maximus of Constantinople (c. 580 – 13 August 662), was a Christianmonk, theologian, and scholar.
In his early life, Maximus was a civil servant, and an aide to the Byzantine EmperorHeraclius. He gave up this life in the political sphere to enter the monastic life. Maximus had studied diverse schools of philosophy, and certainly what was common for his time, the Platonic dialogues, the works of Aristotle, and numerous later Platonic commentators on Aristotle and Plato, like Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, and Proclus. When one of his friends began espousing the Christological position known as Monothelitism, Maximus was drawn into the controversy, in which he supported an interpretation of the Chalcedonian formula on the basis of which it was asserted that Jesus had both a human and a divine will. Maximus is venerated in both the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. He was eventually persecuted for his Christological positions; following a trial, his tongue and right hand were mutilated. (Full article...)
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Mary Wollstonecraft by John Opie (c. 1791) The lifetime of British writer, philosopher, and feministMary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797) encompassed most of the second half of the eighteenth century, a time of great political and social upheaval throughout Europe and America: political reform movements in Britain gained strength, the American colonists successfully rebelled, and the French Revolution erupted. Wollstonecraft experienced only the headiest of these days, not living to see the end of the democratic revolution when Napoleon crowned himself emperor. Although Britain was still revelling in its mid-century imperial conquests and its triumph in the Seven Years' War, it was the French revolution that defined Wollstonecraft's generation. As poet Robert Southey later wrote: "few persons but those who have lived in it can conceive or comprehend what the memory of the French Revolution was, nor what a visionary world seemed to open upon those who were just entering it. Old things seemed passing away, and nothing was dreamt of but the regeneration of the human race."
Part of what made reform possible in Britain in the second half of the eighteenth century was the dramatic increase in publishing; books, periodicals, and pamphlets became much more widely available than they had been just a few decades earlier. This increase in available printed material helped facilitate the rise of the British middle class. Reacting against what they viewed as aristocratic decadence, the new professional middle classes (made prosperous through British manufacturing and trade), offered their own ethical code: reason, meritocracy, self-reliance, religious toleration, free inquiry, free enterprise, and hard work. They set these values against what they perceived as the superstition and unreason of the poor and the prejudices, censorship, and self-indulgence of the rich. They also helped establish what has come to be called the "cult of domesticity", which solidified gender roles for men and women. This new vision of society rested on the writings of Scottish Enlightenment philosophers such as Adam Smith, who had developed a theory of social progress founded on sympathy and sensibility. A partial critique of the rationalist Enlightenment, these theories promoted a combination of reason and feeling that enabled women to enter the public sphere because of their keen moral sense. Wollstonecraft's writings stand at the nexus of all of these changes. Her educational works, such as her children's bookOriginal Stories from Real Life (1788), helped inculcate middle-class values, and her two Vindications, A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790) and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), argue for the value of an educated, rational populace, specifically one that includes women. In her two novels, Mary: A Fiction and Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman, she explores the ramifications of sensibility for women. (Full article...)
Born and raised in Albany, New York, Hand majored in philosophy at Harvard College and graduated with honors from Harvard Law School. After a relatively undistinguished career as a lawyer in Albany and New York City, he was appointed at the age of 37 as a Manhattan federal district judge in 1909. The profession suited his detached and open-minded temperament, and his decisions soon won him a reputation for craftsmanship and authority. Between 1909 and 1914, under the influence of Herbert Croly's social theories, Hand supported New Nationalism. He ran unsuccessfully as the Progressive Party's candidate for chief judge of the New York Court of Appeals in 1913, but withdrew from active politics shortly afterwards. In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge elevated Hand to the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, which he went on to lead as the senior circuit judge (later retitled chief judge) from 1939 until his semi-retirement in 1951. Scholars have recognized the Second Circuit under Hand as one of the finest appeals courts in American history. Friends and admirers often lobbied for Hand's promotion to the Supreme Court, but circumstances and his political past conspired against his appointment. (Full article...)
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A stamp of Zhang Heng issued by China Post in 1955
Zhang Heng began his career as a minor civil servant in Nanyang. Eventually, he became Chief Astronomer, Prefect of the Majors for Official Carriages, and then Palace Attendant at the imperial court. His uncompromising stance on historical and calendrical issues led to his becoming a controversial figure, preventing him from rising to the status of Grand Historian. His political rivalry with the palace eunuchs during the reign of Emperor Shun (r. 125–144) led to his decision to retire from the central court to serve as an administrator of Hejian Kingdom in present-day Hebei. Zhang returned home to Nanyang for a short time, before being recalled to serve in the capital once more in 138. He died there a year later, in 139. (Full article...)
Text below: "The 'pink triangle' was the sign with which the National Socialists marked homosexuals in the concentration camps in a defamatory way. From January 1933 almost all homosexual locales in and around Nollendorfplatz were closed by the National Socialists or misused by raids to create 'pink lists' (homosexual files)."
The Nazi regime considered the elimination of all manifestations of homosexuality in Germany one of its goals. Men were often arrested after denunciation, police raids, and through information uncovered during interrogations of other homosexuals. Those arrested were presumed guilty, and subjected to harsh interrogation and torture to elicit a confession. Between 1933 and 1945, an estimated 100,000 men were arrested as homosexuals; around 50,000 of these were sentenced by civilian courts, 6,400 to 7,000 by military courts [de], and an unknown number by special courts. Most of these men served time in regular prisons, and between 5,000 and 6,000 were imprisoned in concentration camps. The death rate of these prisoners has been estimated at 60 percent, a higher rate than those of other prisoner groups. A smaller number of men were sentenced to death or killed at Nazi euthanasia centres. Nazi Germany's persecution of homosexuals is considered to be the most severe episode in a long history of discrimination and violence targeting sexual minorities. (Full article...)
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The title-page of the 1759 edition published by Cramer in Geneva, which reads, "Candide, or Optimism, translated from the German by Dr. Ralph."
Candide, ou l'Optimisme (/kɒnˈdiːd/kon-DEED, French:[kɑ̃did]ⓘ) is a French satire written by Voltaire, a philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment, first published in 1759. The novella has been widely translated, with English versions titled Candide: or, All for the Best (1759); Candide: or, The Optimist (1762); and Candide: Optimism (1947). It begins with a young man, Candide, who is living a sheltered life in an Edenicparadise and being indoctrinated with Leibnizian optimism by his mentor, Professor Pangloss. The work describes the abrupt cessation of this lifestyle, followed by Candide's slow and painful disillusionment as he witnesses and experiences great hardships in the world. Voltaire concludes Candide with, if not rejecting Leibnizian optimism outright, advocating a deeply practical precept, "we must cultivate our garden", in lieu of the Leibnizian mantra of Pangloss, "all is for the best" in the "best of all possible worlds".
Candide is characterized by its tone as well as by its erratic, fantastical, and fast-moving plot. A picaresque novel with a story similar to that of a more serious coming-of-age narrative (bildungsroman), it parodies many adventure and romance clichés, the struggles of which are caricatured in a tone that is bitter and matter-of-fact. Still, the events discussed are often based on historical happenings, such as the Seven Years' War and the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. As philosophers of Voltaire's day contended with the problem of evil, so does Candide in this short theological novel, albeit more directly and humorously. Voltaire ridicules religion, theologians, governments, armies, philosophies, and philosophers. Through Candide, he assaults Leibniz and his optimism. (Full article...)
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Intelligent design (ID) is a pseudoscientific argument for the existence of God, presented by its proponents as "an evidence-based scientific theory about life's origins". Proponents claim that "certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection." ID is a form of creationism that lacks empirical support and offers no testable or tenable hypotheses, and is therefore not science. The leading proponents of ID are associated with the Discovery Institute, a Christian, politically conservative think tank based in the United States.
Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, in which he proposed that energy levels of electrons are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the atomic nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as a wave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy. (Full article...)
Ion Heliade Rădulescu or Ion Heliade (also known as Eliade or Eliade Rădulescu; Romanian pronunciation:[ˈi.onheliˈaderəduˈlesku]; 6 January 1802 – 27 April 1872) was a Wallachian, later Romanian academic, Romantic and Classicist poet, essayist, memoirist, short story writer, newspaper editor and politician. A prolific translator of foreign literature into Romanian, he was also the author of books on linguistics and history. For much of his life, Heliade Rădulescu was a teacher at Saint Sava College in Bucharest, which he helped reopen. He was a founding member and first president of the Romanian Academy.
Heliade Rădulescu is considered one of the foremost champions of Romanian culture from the first half of the 19th century, having first risen to prominence through his association with Gheorghe Lazăr and his support of Lazăr's drive for discontinuing education in Greek. Over the following decades, he had a major role in shaping the modern Romanian language, but caused controversy when he advocated the massive introduction of Italianneologisms into the Romanian lexis. A Romantic nationalist landowner siding with moderate liberals, Heliade was among the leaders of the 1848 Wallachian revolution, after which he was forced to spend several years in exile. Adopting an original form of conservatism, which emphasized the role of the aristocratic boyars in Romanian history, he was rewarded for supporting the Ottoman Empire and clashed with the radical wing of the 1848 revolutionaries. (Full article...)
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Title page from the second edition of A Vindication of the Rights of Men, the first to carry Wollstonecraft's name
Wollstonecraft attacked not only hereditary privilege, but also the rhetoric that Burke used to defend it. Most of Burke's detractors deplored what they viewed as his theatrical pity for Marie Antoinette, but Wollstonecraft was unique in her love of Burke's gendered language. By saying the sublime and the beautiful, terms first established by Burke himself in A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1756), she kept his rhetoric as well as his argument. In her first unabashedly feminist critique, which Wollstonecraft scholar Claudia Johnson describes as unsurpassed in its argumentative force, Wollstonecraft indicts Burke's justification of an equal society founded on the passivity of women. (Full article...)
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Wollstonecraft c. 1797
Mary Wollstonecraft (/ˈwʊlstənkræft/, also UK: /-krɑːft/; 27 April 1759 – 10 September 1797) was a British writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. Until the late 20th century, Wollstonecraft's life, which encompassed several unconventional (at the time) personal relationships, received more attention than her writing. Wollstonecraft is regarded as one of the founding feminist philosophers, and feminists often cite both her life and her works as important influences.
During her brief career she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book. Wollstonecraft is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason. (Full article...)
... que el libro Working from Within detalla cómo W. V. Quine sólo comenzó a utilizar el término " naturalismo " años después de haber desarrollado los principios clave de la filosofía?
... ¿que el médico chino Yu Yan describió teorías como el yin-yang y las cinco fases como "simples mentiras, absolutamente no factuales y completamente infundadas"?
... que Albert Einstein le escribió a Joseph Petzoldt en 1914 que "hacía tiempo que compartía sus convicciones", después de leer uno de sus libros filosóficos?
... que por demanda popular, el filósofo Anton Charles Pegis continuó enseñando clases de posgrado durante tres años después de convertirse en profesor emérito ?
Comte vio una ley universal que se aplicaba a todas las ciencias y la denominó «ley de las tres fases». Es por esta declaración que se le conoce mejor en el mundo angloparlante: la sociedad ha pasado por tres fases: teológica, metafísica y científica. También le dio el nombre de «positiva» a la última de ellas debido a las connotaciones polisémicas de la palabra.
El ateísmo es el estado de incredulidad o no creencia en la existencia de una deidad o deidades. Se define comúnmente como la negación positiva del teísmo (es decir, la afirmación de que las deidades no existen), o el rechazo deliberado del teísmo (es decir, la negativa a creer en la existencia de deidades). Sin embargo, otros, incluidos la mayoría de los filósofos y grupos ateos, definen el ateísmo como la simple ausencia de creencia en deidades (cf. no-teísmo), designando así también como ateos a muchos agnósticos y personas que nunca han oído hablar de dioses, como los no creyentes o los niños recién nacidos. En los últimos años, algunos ateos han adoptado los términos ateísmo fuerte y ateísmo débil para aclarar si consideran que su postura es de creencia positiva de que no existen dioses ( ateísmo fuerte ), o de mera ausencia de creencia en que existen dioses ( ateísmo débil ).
Se trata de buenos artículos que cumplen un conjunto básico de altos estándares editoriales.
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El Sermón de las Bienaventuranzas describe el Sermón de la Montaña de Jesús , en el que resumió sus enseñanzas éticas. James Tissot , c. 1890 La ética cristiana , también conocida como teología moral , es un sistema ético multifacético. Es una ética de la virtud , que se centra en la construcción del carácter moral , y una ética deontológica que enfatiza el deber. También incorpora la ética de la ley natural , que se basa en la creencia de que es la naturaleza misma de los humanos (creados a imagen de Dios y capaces de moralidad, cooperación, racionalidad, discernimiento, etc.) la que informa cómo debe vivirse la vida, y que la conciencia del pecado no requiere una revelación especial. Otros aspectos de la ética cristiana, representados por movimientos como el evangelio social y la teología de la liberación , pueden combinarse en una cuarta área a veces llamada ética profética.
La ética cristiana deriva su núcleo metafísico de la Biblia , viendo a Dios como la fuente última de todo poder. La epistemología evidencial , reformada y volitiva son las tres formas más comunes de epistemología cristiana . La variedad de perspectivas éticas en la Biblia ha llevado a repetidos desacuerdos sobre la definición de los principios éticos cristianos básicos, con al menos siete principios principales sometidos a debate y reinterpretación perennes. Los especialistas en ética cristiana utilizan la razón, la filosofía , el derecho natural, las ciencias sociales y la Biblia para formular interpretaciones modernas de esos principios; la ética cristiana se aplica a todas las áreas de la ética personal y social. ( Artículo completo... )
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A marble head of Socrates in the Louvre (copy of a lost bronze head by Lysippus)
Socrates (/ˈsɒkrətiːz/, Greek: Σωκράτης, translit.Sōkrátēs; c. 470 – 399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and as among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no texts and is known mainly through the posthumous accounts of classical writers, particularly his students Plato and Xenophon. These accounts are written as dialogues, in which Socrates and his interlocutors examine a subject in the style of question and answer; they gave rise to the Socratic dialogue literary genre. Contradictory accounts of Socrates make a reconstruction of his philosophy nearly impossible, a situation known as the Socratic problem. Socrates was a polarizing figure in Athenian society. In 399 BC, he was accused of impiety and corrupting the youth. After a trial that lasted a day, he was sentenced to death. He spent his last day in prison, refusing offers to help him escape.
Plato's dialogues are among the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity. They demonstrate the Socratic approach to areas of philosophy including epistemology and ethics. The Platonic Socrates lends his name to the concept of the Socratic method, and also to Socratic irony. The Socratic method of questioning, or elenchus, takes shape in dialogue using short questions and answers, epitomized by those Platonic texts in which Socrates and his interlocutors examine various aspects of an issue or an abstract meaning, usually relating to one of the virtues, and find themselves at an impasse, completely unable to define what they thought they understood. Socrates is known for proclaiming his total ignorance; he used to say that the only thing he was aware of was his ignorance, seeking to imply that the realization of our ignorance is the first step in philosophizing. (Full article...)
Born and raised in a Hindu family in coastal Gujarat, Gandhi trained in the law at the Inner Temple in London and was called to the bar in June 1891, at the age of 22. After two uncertain years in India, where he was unable to start a successful law practice, Gandhi moved to South Africa in 1893 to represent an Indian merchant in a lawsuit. He went on to live in South Africa for 21 years. There, Gandhi raised a family and first employed nonviolent resistance in a campaign for civil rights. In 1915, aged 45, he returned to India and soon set about organising peasants, farmers, and urban labourers to protest against discrimination and excessive land-tax. (Full article...)
Due to the wide range of accounting services and recent corporate collapses, attention has been drawn to ethical standards accepted within the accounting profession. These collapses have resulted in a widespread disregard for the reputation of the accounting profession. To combat the criticism and prevent fraudulent accounting, various accounting organizations and governments have developed regulations and remedies for improved ethics among the accounting profession. (Full article...)
Averroes was a strong proponent of Aristotelianism; he attempted to restore what he considered the original teachings of Aristotle and opposed the Neoplatonist tendencies of earlier Muslim thinkers, such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna. He also defended the pursuit of philosophy against criticism by Ashari theologians such as Al-Ghazali. Averroes argued that philosophy was permissible in Islam and even compulsory among certain elites. He also argued scriptural text should be interpreted allegorically if it appeared to contradict conclusions reached by reason and philosophy. In Islamic jurisprudence, he wrote the Bidāyat al-Mujtahid on the differences between Islamic schools of law and the principles that caused their differences. In medicine, he proposed a new theory of stroke, described the signs and symptoms of Parkinson's disease for the first time, and might have been the first to identify the retina as the part of the eye responsible for sensing light. His medical book Al-Kulliyat fi al-Tibb, translated into Latin and known as the Colliget, became a textbook in Europe for centuries. (Full article...)
In 1971, Abernathy addressed the United Nations speaking about world peace. He also assisted in brokering a deal between the FBI and American Indian Movement protestors during the Wounded Knee incident of 1973. He retired from his position as president of the SCLC in 1977 and became president emeritus. Later that year he unsuccessfully ran for the U.S. House of Representatives for the 5th district of Georgia. He later founded the Foundation for Economic Enterprises Development, and he testified before the U.S. Congress in support of extending the Voting Rights Act in 1982. (Full article...)
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Portrait of Periyar on a postage stamp
Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy (17 September 1879 – 24 December 1973), revered by his followers as Periyar or Thanthai Periyar, was an Indian social activist and politician who started the Self-Respect Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam. He is known as the 'Father of the Dravidian movement'. He rebelled against Brahmin dominance and gender and caste inequality in Tamil Nadu. Since 2021, the Indian state of Tamil Nadu celebrates his birth anniversary as 'Social Justice Day'.
Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919. In 1924, Ramasamy participated in non-violent agitation (satyagraha) involving Mahatma Gandhi in Vaikom, Travancore. He resigned from the Congress in 1925 when he felt that the party was only serving the interests of Brahmins. He questioned what he felt was the subjugation of non-Brahmin Dravidians as Brahmins enjoyed gifts and donations from non-Brahmins but opposed and discriminated against non-Brahmins in cultural and religious matters. He declared his stance to be "no god, no religion, no Gandhi, no Congress, and no Brahmins". (Full article...)
Raghubir and Srivastava conducted three studies in their research on the denomination effect; their findings suggested people may be more likely to spend money represented by smaller denominations and that consumers may prefer to receive money in a large denomination when there is a need to control spending. The denomination effect can occur when large denominations are perceived as less exchangeable than smaller denominations. (Full article...)
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Avicenna, the proponent of the argument, depicted on a 1999 Tajikistani banknote The Proof of the Truthful (Arabic: برهان الصديقين, romanized: burhān al-ṣiddīqīn, also translated Demonstration of the Truthful or Proof of the Veracious, among others) is a formal argument for proving the existence of God introduced by the Islamic philosopherAvicenna (also known as Ibn Sina, 980–1037). Avicenna argued that there must be a "necessary existent" (Arabic: واجب الوجود, romanized: wājib al-wujūd), an entity that cannot not exist. The argument says that the entire set of contingent things must have a cause that is not contingent because otherwise it would be included in the set. Furthermore, through a series of arguments, he derived that the necessary existent must have attributes that he identified with God in Islam, including unity, simplicity, immateriality, intellect, power, generosity, and goodness.
Historian of philosophyPeter Adamson called the argument one of the most influential medieval arguments for God's existence, and Avicenna's biggest contribution to the history of philosophy. It was enthusiastically received and repeated (sometimes with modification) by later philosophers, including generations of Muslim philosophers, Western Christian philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus, and Jewish philosophers such as Maimonides. (Full article...)
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Taoism or Daoism is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao. With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', 'path', or 'technique', generally understood in the Taoist sense as an enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying reality. Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Taoist tradition and beyond, including forms of meditation, astrology, qigong, feng shui, and internal alchemy. A common goal of Taoist practice is self-cultivation, a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and more harmonious existence.
Sun Tzu mastered the military science of ancient China and created the military doctrine of asymmetrical warfare. According to it, an attack on the enemy should begin only after the enemy has no opportunity to either defend or counterattack. It was used in the wars in the era of the Warring States in ancient China (about 475–221 BC). Those combat combinations had specific names, descriptions and classifications. (Full article...)
The theory holds that moral reasoning, a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for ethical behavior, has six developmental stages, each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its predecessor. Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment far beyond the ages studied earlier by Piaget, who also claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding on Piaget's work, Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice and that it continued throughout the individual's life, a notion that led to dialogue on the philosophical implications of such research. (Full article...)
Su Song was the engineer for a hydro-mechanicalastronomicalclock tower in medieval Kaifeng, which employed an early escapement mechanism. The escapement mechanism of Su's clock tower had been invented by Tang dynasty BuddhistmonkYi Xing and government official Liang Lingzan in 725 AD to operate a water-powered armillary sphere, although Su's armillary sphere was the first to be provided with a mechanical clock drive. Su's clock tower also featured the oldest known endless power-transmitting chain drive, called the tian ti (天梯), or "celestial ladder", as depicted in his horological treatise. The clock tower had 133 different clock jacks to indicate and sound the hours. Su Song's treatise about the clock tower, Xinyi Xiangfayao (新儀象法要), has survived since its written form in 1092 and official printed publication in 1094. The book has been analyzed by many historians, such as the British biochemist, historian, and sinologist Joseph Needham. The clock itself, however, was dismantled by the invadingJurchen army in 1127 AD, and although attempts were made to reassemble it, the tower was never successfully reinstated. (Full article...)
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Gray in the 1870s
Asa GrayForMemRS (November 18, 1810 – January 30, 1888) is considered the most important American botanist of the 19th century. His Darwiniana was considered an important explanation of how religion and science were not necessarily mutually exclusive. Gray was adamant that a genetic connection must exist between all members of a species. He was also strongly opposed to the ideas of hybridization within one generation and special creation in the sense of its not allowing for evolution. He was a strong supporter of Darwin, although Gray's theistic evolution was guided by a Creator.
As a professor of botany at Harvard University for several decades, Gray regularly visited, and corresponded with, many of the leading natural scientists of the era, including Charles Darwin, who held great regard for him. Gray made several trips to Europe to collaborate with leading European scientists of the era, as well as trips to the southern and western United States. He also built an extensive network of specimen collectors. (Full article...)
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Image 15El filósofo Pirrón de Élide , en una anécdota tomada de los Bosquejos del pirronismo de Sexto Empírico
(superior)PIRRHO • HELIENSIS • PLISTARCHI • FILIVS traducción (del latín): Pyrrho • griego • Hijo de Plistarchus
(centro)OPORTERE • SAPIENTEM HANC ILLIVS IMITARI SECVRITATEMtraducción (del latín): Es sabiduría recta entonces que todos imiten esta seguridad (Pirrón señalando a un cerdo pacífico masticando su comida)
(abajo)Quien quiera aplicar la verdadera sabiduría, no debe preocuparse por el temor y la miseria.
Image 35La universidad y monasterio budista de Nalanda fue un importante centro de aprendizaje en la India desde el siglo V d. C. hasta alrededor del año 1200. (de Filosofía oriental )
Image 12El tercio central de Educación (1890), vitral de Louis Comfort Tiffany y Tiffany Studios, ubicado en Linsly-Chittenden Hall en la Universidad de Yale . Representa la Ciencia (personificada por la Devoción, el Trabajo, la Verdad, la Investigación y la Intuición) y la Religión (personificada por la Pureza, la Fe, la Esperanza, la Reverencia y la Inspiración) en armonía, presidida por la personificación central de "Luz·Amor·Vida".
Image 13Oscar Wilde reclinado con poemas de Napoleon Sarony en Nueva York en 1882. A Wilde a menudo le gustaba parecer ocioso, aunque en realidad trabajaba duro; a finales de la década de 1880 era padre, editor y escritor.
La filosofía se ocupa de las preguntas más fundamentales que la humanidad ha podido plantearse. Estas son cada vez más numerosas y con el tiempo se han organizado en las ramas superpuestas del árbol filosófico:
Estética : ¿Qué es el arte? ¿Qué es la belleza? ¿Existe un criterio de gusto? ¿Tiene sentido el arte? Si es así, ¿qué significa? ¿Qué es el buen arte? ¿El arte tiene como fin un fin o es "el arte por el arte"? ¿Qué nos conecta con el arte? ¿Cómo nos afecta el arte? ¿Hay obras de arte que no son éticas? ¿Puede el arte corromper o elevar a las sociedades?
Epistemología : ¿Cuáles son la naturaleza y los límites del conocimiento? ¿Qué es más fundamental para la existencia humana, el conocimiento (epistemología) o el ser (ontología)? ¿Cómo llegamos a saber lo que sabemos? ¿Cuáles son los límites y el alcance del conocimiento? ¿Cómo podemos saber que existen otras mentes (si podemos)? ¿Cómo podemos saber que existe un mundo externo (si podemos)? ¿Cómo podemos probar nuestras respuestas? ¿Qué es una afirmación verdadera?
Ética : ¿Existe una diferencia entre las acciones (o valores o instituciones) éticamente correctas y las incorrectas? Si es así, ¿cuál es esa diferencia? ¿Qué acciones son correctas y cuáles incorrectas? ¿Los mandamientos divinos hacen que las acciones correctas sean correctas, o su corrección se basa en algo más? ¿Existen estándares de corrección que sean absolutos, o todos esos estándares son relativos a culturas particulares? ¿Cómo debo vivir? ¿Qué es la felicidad?
Lógica : ¿Qué hace que un argumento sea bueno? ¿Cómo puedo pensar críticamente sobre argumentos complicados? ¿Qué hace que un pensamiento sea bueno? ¿Cuándo puedo decir que algo simplemente no tiene sentido? ¿Dónde está el origen de la lógica?
Metafísica : ¿Qué tipos de cosas existen? ¿Cuál es la naturaleza de esas cosas? ¿Existen algunas cosas independientemente de nuestra percepción? ¿Cuál es la naturaleza del espacio y del tiempo? ¿Cuál es la relación de la mente con el cuerpo? ¿Qué es ser una persona? ¿Qué es ser consciente? ¿Existen los dioses?
Filosofía política : ¿Están justificadas las instituciones políticas y su ejercicio del poder? ¿Qué es la justicia? ¿Existe un papel y un alcance "adecuados" del gobierno? ¿Es la democracia la mejor forma de gobierno? ¿Es éticamente justificable el gobierno? ¿Se debe permitir que un Estado actúe? ¿Debe un Estado poder promover las normas y valores de una determinada doctrina moral o religiosa? ¿Se permite a los Estados ir a la guerra? ¿Tienen los Estados deberes respecto de los habitantes de otros Estados?
![Imagen 1 Retrato de August Köhler, c. 1910, según el original de 1627 Johannes Kepler (/ˈkɛplər/; alemán: [joˈhanəs ˈkɛplɐ, -nɛs -] ⓘ; 27 de diciembre de 1571 - 15 de noviembre de 1630) fue un astrónomo, matemático, astrólogo, filósofo natural y escritor sobre música alemán. Es una figura clave en la Revolución científica del siglo XVII, mejor conocido por sus leyes del movimiento planetario y sus libros Astronomia nova, Harmonice Mundi y Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae, influyendo, entre otros, en Isaac Newton, proporcionando una de las bases para su teoría de la gravitación universal. La variedad y el impacto de su trabajo hicieron de Kepler uno de los fundadores y padres de la astronomía moderna, el método científico, la ciencia natural y moderna. Se le ha calificado como el "padre de la ciencia ficción" por su novela Somnium. Kepler fue profesor de matemáticas en un seminario de Graz, donde se convirtió en socio del príncipe Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Más tarde se convirtió en asistente del astrónomo Tycho Brahe en Praga y, finalmente, en el matemático imperial del emperador Rodolfo II y sus dos sucesores Matías y Fernando II. También enseñó matemáticas en Linz y fue consejero del general Wallenstein. Además, realizó un trabajo fundamental en el campo de la óptica, siendo nombrado el padre de la óptica moderna, en particular por su Astronomiae pars optica. También inventó una versión mejorada del telescopio refractor, el telescopio kepleriano, que se convirtió en la base del telescopio refractor moderno, al tiempo que mejoraba el diseño del telescopio de Galileo Galilei, quien mencionó los descubrimientos de Kepler en su obra. (Artículo completo...)](http://File:Blank.png)
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![Imagen 16Adam Smith (bautizado el 16 de junio de 1723 - fallecido el 17 de julio de 1790 [OS: 5 de junio de 1723 - 17 de julio de 1790]) fue un filósofo moral escocés y pionero de la economía política. Una de las figuras clave de la Ilustración escocesa, Smith es el autor de La teoría de los sentimientos morales y Una investigación sobre la naturaleza y las causas de la riqueza de las naciones. Esta última, generalmente abreviada como La riqueza de las naciones, se considera su obra magna y el primer trabajo moderno de economía. Smith es ampliamente citado como el padre de la economía moderna.](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png/1280px-Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png)
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